The Rise and Fall of Alexandria Essays

The Rise and Fall of Alexandria Essays The Rise and Fall of Alexandria Essay The Rise and Fall of Alexandria Essay How the modern world was actually established is often overlooked and attributed to the powers and domination of Athens and Rome. What authors Justin Pollard and Howard Reid urge readers to understand, however, is the significance that the city of Alexandria had on Western Civilization. Both authors have worked in British and American television, and are accomplished in the film/documentary industry.Reid has also previously written five other books. In their narrative book, The Rise and Fall of Alexandria, they seek to emphasize just how important this little city was to the foundation of the modern world through accounts of history. Alexandria was built on the foundation of knowledge and intellect, with some of the greatest minds in the fields of Philosophy and Astronomy behind the operation. Alexandria was the birthplace of some of history’s most influential people and the ideas that accompanied them.The ideas of these influential people, such as Herophilus and his discovery of the human organs, and Aristarchus with his idea of a heliocentric universe, have been carried down for centuries and will never be forgotten. Alexandria was home to the incredible library and museum where some of the world’s greatest thinkers pondered and hypothesized the abstracts and ideas that were foreign to their time. Along with all of these historical facts about Alexandria, the city also houses one of the Seven Wonders of the World- the magnificent lighthouse, the Pharos.Alexandria, one of the most influential cities in the foundation of the modern world and a city whose â€Å"unique soul† (p. 1) has been overlooked by history. But, through The Rise and Fall of Alexandria, readers are able to experience the climb to knowledge and intellect, as well as the rise and fall of this â€Å"most extraordinary city on earth† (p. 176). Alexander founded the city of Alexandria in 331 BC. Alexandria was in a prime location for a provincial capital with its †Å"access to Egypt’s wealth and connections on to the Red Sea† (p. 7). He wanted Egypt as part of his growing empire.Not long after in 323 BC, however, Alexander died and left this newly established city to his half brother and baby son. Alexander’s childhood friend, Ptolemy, soon came to rule over the city and Alexandria began rising. Ptolemy had plans for the city and began building innovative roads and two sea harbors. With these new developments, authors note, the â€Å"fundamental plan of the greatest city in the ancient world was complete. † Houses, slaves, cattle, and taxpayers were being taken from surrounding villages and given to the capital city of Alexandria.When Ptolemy’s son and successor (Ptolemy II) began his rule on the city, he, too, threw himself into developing Alexandria and created a currency that could be used to sell and trade. Structures were built, such as temples and the lighthouse, and Alexandria was becoming known as â₠¬Å"the light of the world† (p. 92). Along with the furthering of physical growth to the city of Alexandria, there was also growth politically and religiously. Ptolemy wished to fuse ancient thinking with the modern thinking of the Greeks, so he devised a plan and created a cult through a fusion of two gods: the god of the dead and the living bull.And this Greco-Egyptian cult was created and called Serapis. Through this newly founded religion and the constant furthering of the city’s buildings and technology, Alexandria began to rise. One of the main and most important themes found in the history of Alexandria is how much the city and that period in time contributed to the knowledge of the world. Some of the most brilliant people influenced that particular time, including the great philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, as well as others such as Euclid of Alexandria, Herophilus, Aristarchus, and Eratosthenes.Alexandria was rich in knowledge because of the great mi nds that utilized and contributed to the city’s institutions, such as the library and the lighthouse, to hypothesize theories and concepts. For example, Eratosthenes observed ships on the horizon from atop the lighthouse in Alexandria and eventually was the first to compass the world and describe the globe. Aristotle, being the private tutor of Alexander, could be credited for laying the intellectual foundation for the city of Alexandria. He, too, contributed to the Library of the city.Behind the brilliance of Aristotle, one can find the influences of the great philosophers that preceded him: Socrates and Plato. Because of its saturation of intellects and the availability of resources (the library and museum), Alexandria was a city thriving with knowledge and new schools of thought. Alexandria was the birthplace of the modern world, â€Å"not led by legions of soldiers, but by dynasties of scholars navigating on a sea of books† (p. 1). Alexander was considered to be a living god by the Egyptians for over 3,000 years, but the Greeks, however, did not so easily accept this notion.At the death of Alexander, dispute over who should rule over the largest empire on earth was in play. Finally, Alexander’s childhood friend, Ptolemy who looked like an Egyptian and spoke like a Greek, became Pharaoh. The reign of Ptolemy, including his heirs, was one that lasted for five generations. As even the beginning of the Alexandria Empire showed a trend of a constant power struggle among kings and pharaohs, so it continued this way until its fall. With rulers coming in and out of power, Alexandria was under a constant power struggle.Since Alexander’s death, â€Å"the eastern Mediterranean had been involved in an almost continuous struggle among the descendants of his heirs for control over† Alexandria (p. 156). A power that was becoming stronger and more threatening was that of Rome. Whether it was the grain that attracted the Romans to Alexand ria, or the hunger for a place in history with the greatest conqueror, Alexander, the Romans were drawn to Alexandria. While under the rule of Cleopatra, the city of Alexandria was invaded by the Romans and the city was set in flames.The great Library of Alexandria lost some 4,000 papyrus scrolls, which although was not the end of the library, was the symbol of the city falling as the heart of it had been burned. In the spring of 30 BC, Alexandria was again invaded by Octavian and his army, and on August 1, â€Å"the Ptolemaic kingdom came to an end† (p. 172). Alexandria became a city in which it was dangerous to express one’s religious beliefs or opinions. In the middle of this dangerous time, the last scientist who worked in the library was a woman named Hypatia.The fact that she was a woman and that she was friends with the Roman governor made the Archbishop of Alexandria, Cyril, hate her. Hypatia was killed, and soon after, the Library was destroyed. The heart and mind, the central being, the core of Alexandria was destroyed with the Library, and â€Å"with the death of Hypatia, her city also began to die (p. 280). The streets were filled with religious extremism and violence and with ethnic tension; the customs were changing and even the language was transforming as influenced by the Egyptians (p. 80). Eventually the great city of Alexandria was torn down by the Muslim general and the place that had once flourished with civilization and knowledge became nothing but ruins covered in flour and grain- and so was the fall of Alexandria. Alexandria was a city that started out strong and promising, with its dedicated rulers and the plans they had to nurture and expand the empire. It was the center of knowledge and wisdom, a magnet for those with great minds and ideas about the world.The heart of the city was its beloved library. Intellects swarmed this great city to teach, to learn, to ponder, and to discover. Aristarchus â€Å"put the earth in heavens in motion† (p. 108) when he proposed a model of the solar system; Eratosthenes found the solution to the â€Å"Delian Problem† (p. 122); Archimedes figured out how to calculate the volume of a sphere: all these discoveries out of the city in Egypt. As I read through this book, I felt as though I was in the middle of it all.It felt like I was watching the birth of a baby as the city was founded, the hard life of growing up as the city underwent so many changes, and eventually the death of a legacy as the city was torn down. The city of Alexandria served its purpose of facilitating the minds of philosophical geniuses and an important chunk of history in our world. Through this book, Justin Pollard and Howard Reid were able to bring to life a long-lost empire that rose and fell, but will never be forgotten. Pollard, Justin and Howard Reid. The Rise and Fall of Alexandria: Birthplace of the Modern World. New York: Penguin Books, 2006.

The Temperature Range of Rainfall

The Temperature Range of Rainfall If youve ever wondered why getting soaked in a rainstorm makes you cold, its not just because the precipitation moistens your clothes and skin, the temperature of the rainwater itself is also to blame. On average, raindrops have temperatures somewhere between 32 F (0 C) and 80 F (27 C). Whether a raindrop is closer to the cold or warm end of that range  depends on a number of things including what temperature it starts at high up in the clouds and what the air temperatures are in the upper atmosphere where those clouds are floating. As you can imagine, both of these things vary from day to day, season to season, and location to location, which means there is no usual  temperature for raindrops.   Temperatures in the atmosphere interact with raindrops, starting from their birth high up in a cloud to their final target- you and the ground- drastically affecting the temperature of these droplets of water. Cold Beginnings and Cold Descents Surprisingly, most of the worlds rainfall begins as snow high up in the clouds overhead- even on a hot summer day! Thats because temperatures in the upper portions of clouds are well below freezing, sometimes as low as -58 F. The snowflakes and ice crystals found in clouds at these cold temperatures and heights warm and melt into liquid water as they pass below the freezing level, then exit the parent cloud and enter the warmer air below it. As the melted raindrops continue to descend, they can become cooler through evaporation  in a process that  meteorologists call evaporative cooling,  wherein rain falls into drier air, causing that airs dewpoint to increase and its temperature to lower. Evaporative cooling is also one reason why rainfall is associated with cooler air, which explains why meteorologists sometimes claim it is raining or snowing high up in the upper atmosphere and will soon do so out your window- the longer this happens, the more the air near the ground will moisten and cool, allowing the precipitation a path to fall to the surface. Air Temperatures Above Ground Affect Final Raindrop Temp In general, as precipitation nears the ground, the atmospheres temperature profile- the range of air temperatures that the precipitation passes through- from around the 700 millibar level down to the surface determines the type of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or freezing rain) that will reach the ground. If this temperature is above freezing, the precipitation will, of course, be rain, but how warm above freezing they are will determine how cool the raindrops will be once they hit the ground. On the other hand, if the temperature is below freezing, the precipitation will fall as snow, sleet, or freezing rain depending on how much lower than freezing the range of air temperatures is. If youve ever experienced a rain shower that was warm to the touch, its because the rains temperature is above the current surface air temperature. This occurs when temperatures  from 700 millibars (3,000 meters) down are quite warm but a shallow layer of cooler air blankets the surface.

Summary and thesis development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Summary and thesis development - Essay Example As a result, people who frequently watch television shows tend to develop unbalance and unrealistic view of things in the real world. Presenting the ideas of Gerbner, Waters specifically criticises the depiction of characters as well as various ideas in terms of gender, race, sex, health, age, crime and work among other groupings. For example, Waters believes that crime is presented on television in a manner that it appears on the screen over ten times as it is in reality. He argues that presentation of crime on television has high propensity to promote aggression among the viewers. Crime featured in television shows inculcate certain lessons in social sphere by depicting what one person can do to another and go unpunished. While all the representation of characters on television shows are crucial for various reasons, Water’s critique, especially, of the way crime and race are depicted on prime television is very significant and relevant. The big questions are: does Waters’ criticism of crime and race presentation relevant to the modern society? Does it have a bearing on deviant behaviours witnessed in everyday life? Owing to the fact that the modern society is characterised by high crime rates and racially motivated actions, one can agree less that television shows can have a profound influence on the decisions that people make when confronted with certain issues in real life. The show Friday Night Lights is an epitome of a television show that can greatly influence the choices of its lovers. In particular, the episode of season two of the popular television drama features a gruesome murder of a man by a character who is a member of the show’s high school crew. The murderer pulls the trigger in response to an attempted rape on the girl he likes. Afterwards, he conspires with the girl to conceal the body of the victim so as to keep the crime under cover. Landry

ENTREPRENURSHIP CAPITAL & THE FIRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

ENTREPRENURSHIP CAPITAL & THE FIRM - Essay Example The major activities of an entrepreneur generally depends upon three components which include bearing risks, introducing innovative technologies and creating new products or services The main function of an entrepreneur is to form new solutions by recognising opportunities for attaining considerable profits. The common features of an entrepreneur are identifying business opportunities, adopting as well as implementing effective business strategies, creating interrelation with the employees and utilising valuable resources (Havinal 95-101). An entrepreneur is typically viewed to be the owner of the business whose prime intention is to accomplish desired business objectives. An entrepreneur is required to acquire adequate knowledge as well as skills relating to the analysis of business markets for the success of the business. A particular entrepreneur is entrusted with the responsibility of performing effective business functions for enhanced business performance and achieving signific ant competitive position over the chief business market competitors. Additionally, an entrepreneur must possess specific business traits as well as characteristics to conduct business in an effective manner (Havinal 95-101). Thesis Statement In this discussion, the background of the entrepreneur from childhood to commencement of business will be taken into concern. Moreover, the influencing factors which are responsible for encouraging the entrepreneurs to start up new business and detailed analysis of the subsequent management and development of a new venture will also be portrayed in the discussion. Background of the Entrepreneur The background of an entrepreneur is recognised to be an essential factor for influencing an individual to start up a new business. The varied experiences which are acquired by an individual from childhood are responsible for the development of entrepreneurial qualities. There are certain factors which require paying much attention for commencing a new bu siness by taking into concern the traits that experiences by an entrepreneur from childhood as well as family background. In this similar context, an entrepreneur as a child should obtain the knowledge as well as the experiences from his/her parents who conduct business for survival. It has been apparently observed that the self-employed parents perform significant role in developing entrepreneurial behaviour as well as attitudes towards a child (Lancaster University, â€Å"Family Business Background, Perceptions of Barriers and Entrepreneurial Intentions in Cyprus†). According to Krueger (1993), the conduct of family business can be regarded as an important as well as influencing factor for acquiring perceived qualities as well as beliefs to commence a new business. The availability of capital required for starting up a business is an important determinant which influences an individual to become a successful entrepreneur.

Demographic population change Essay Example for Free

Demographic population change Essay The population is constantly aging. The population will continue to increase over time because of elderly who have retired, have illnesses and disabilities. Some of the aging population will need long-term care, medical treatment, and in home care because of their medical conditions. Some of the aging population will also require medical care because many of them who are retired do not have health insurance from their jobs. Some elderly rely on Medicare or Medicaid to pay their medical expenses. There is also elderly who are living on a low or fixed income because they are receiving disability income. Therefore they cannot afford to pay for health insurance or prescriptions. Targeted population/demographics Due to the aging economy, the elderly is expected to increase. According to Weiner, M. J. Tilly, J. (2013) â€Å"Between 2000 and 2050, the number of older people is projected to increase by 135%. Moreover, the population aged 85 and over, which is the group most likely to need health and long-term care services, is projected to increase by 350%. Over this time period, the proportion of the population that is over the age of 65 will increase from 12. 7% in 2000 to 20. % in 2050; the proportion of the population that is age 85 and older will increase from 1. 6% in 2000 to 4. 8% in 2050. †(Para 2). The aging population will have a huge effect on health care because of the large amount of elderly who will need acute care. Also because there is a shortage of health care professionals such as nurses and other workers, many long- term care facilities are left with workers that do not have skills to perform their jobs correctly. Also the facilities are paying low rates making it hard to hire new employees and to keep old employees. According to Weiner, M. J. Tilly, J. (2013) â€Å"Unskilled paraprofessionals, who provide the bulk of long-term care services, are overwhelmingly women and disproportionately drawn from racial and ethnic minorities. Low wages and benefits, hard working conditions, heavy workloads and a job that has been stigmatized by society make worker recruitment and retention difficult. † (Para 6). Aging population effect on healthcare There are many elderly that will require treatment for illnesses such as heart disease, bone disorders and other health deficiencies. The ongoing care of patient’s is becoming very costly to health insurance companies as well as the patients. Because patient will need such a long time of managed care, Doctor will have to provide treatment for patients to learn how to manage their illness instead of providing cures. Most of the time when elderly patients have chronic illnesses, the illness can cause them to become disable causing them to require continued care in another facility, such as nursing homes, in home care, and adult day care, which can be longer care. Because the aging population will require long-term care health care cost will increase. The elderly patient that cannot afford to pay for their own medical expenses will have to rely on government funded programs, such as Medicaid. This will cause health care cost to rise because the government will have to pay for the long-term treatment. Also patients that rely on government programs to help pay for their medical expenses cannot afford to pay for their prescription drugs because medication is too expensive to treat chronic conditions. Therefore, they have government programs, such as prescription discount cards to help them pay for their prescriptions. Health care cost will also increase because when the aging population is faced with chronic conditions, there are healthcare organizations that offer wellness programs to help elderly patients get better. These wellness programs are not free. They take many different health insurance plans. Patients who cannot afford them can get help to pay for the program through government health insurance plans. However, because there are so many elderly patients that need well programs because they have chronic conditions, the government health insurance plans can take some time to acquire. Therefore, there are many of the aging population that do not have help and still is waiting on help from the government for health insurance. Although there are other health insurance companies that the elderly can qualify for, there are still requirements for them to become eligible. Some of the aging population is eligible for Medicare through disability. Even though people are covered through Medicare does not mean they do not need assistance. Medicare covers some medical expenses but does not cover dental, prescription drugs, or eyeglasses, leaving many of the aging population with large medical expenses. Sometimes it is difficult for older people to get insurance many of them go to the emergency room for care and many do not get care at all. Because of these types of situations, many older people have died or have medical bills that are so high they cannot afford to pay them. Marketing needs for the aging population. There needs to be more treatment centers built for the older generations. Also there should be marketing campaign for health insurance so that older people can know the type of health care that is available for them and prescription plans that are available. There are many of the aging population that does not know where to go or what to do to apply for health insurance. Therefore they should have campaigns that provide them with the resources they need to accommodate them. Addressing challenges. The communities with senior centers and hold health fairs and bring in different health professional to answer the questions and concerns the elderly has. The government can develop better health insurance program that can help the aging population with preventive, wellness and chronic condition treatments. The patients can make sure they are aware of the resources that are available for treatment. Also take patients can use preventive care programs so they can maintain their health. In Conclusion, there are many of the aging population that can be involved in managing their own health through organizations that offer preventive care for their conditions. It is only a matter of finding the right resources that will help them. Many of the older population do not have health care but there are many government programs that will allow them to get the help they need. Although the aging population will keep growing over time, the society can help them maintain their health so they can stop healthcare cost from growing at such an alarming rate.

lit review :: essays research papers

Roughly 217,440 new cases of invasive breast cancer will be diagnosed in 2004, resulting in nearly 40,580 deaths (3). Those newly diagnosed with breast cancer often have the choice of several different treatments. The treatments include chemotherapy and radiation. Fatigue related from cancer is defined as â€Å"a persistent, subjective sense of tiredness related to cancer or cancer treatment that interferes with usual functioning† (1). This helps contribute to physical inactivity in these patients, leading to deconditioning and decreased functional capacity (1).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Physical inactivity and an increase in rest have generally been recommended for cancer patients (1). However, recent research has shown that physical activity helps with the management of fatigue and improves quality of life (1-4). In addition, 50% of patients prefer nonpharmacologic interventions in order to manage fatigue (4). The current recommendations for breast cancer patients are low to moderate physical activity, such as brisk walking, to manage fatigue and, in turn, improve quality of life (3,4).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Several studies support the recommendations for physical activity in breast cancer patients. These studies prescribed a home-based walking programs to women who were going to receive chemotherapy or radiation treatment for Stage I to III breast cancer (1,2). The walking programs were based on the duration of the radiation (6 weeks) or chemotherapy (3 months) treatment (1,2). The subjects were put into two groups, usual care or usual care and the walking program (1,2). Both of the walking programs prescribed working up to 30 minutes of brisk walking, 5 to 6 days per week and approximately 50-70% of maximum heart rate (1,2). These meet the ACSM’s standards for positive health benefits. Mock, et al studied fatigue and functional capacity in participation in a home-based walking program (1). They concluded that exercise during treatment of cancer increased functional capacity and decreased fatigue in sedentary women subjected to chemotherapy or radiation (1). T he subjects who adhered to the program had significantly lower fatigue levels than those who did not participate (1). The adherence rate of those participating in the exercise program was 72% (1). Since these women were sedentary prior to this study, this suggests an urgency and desire to benefit their overall health. They see the importance of being physically fit, not only to reduce fatigue during treatment, but to improve it after treatment as well. Pickett, et al reported on the adherence rate to a home-based walking program (2).

Reid Based Prepaid Energy Mater

chapter 1 [pic] 1. 1 Objectives of the Study Prepaid energy meter are being used worldwide to improve the collection of funds for the energy used. Weather it is developed nation or developing nation all electricity boards are facing two major issues 1. Power Theft 2. Collection of funds In the existing system the above two problems are non predictable and time consuming process respectively. To overcome these things in the proposed system Cal cards has developed and implemented as RFID based pre-paid energy meter. Cal card take information management to new heights with RFID technology.Using the state of the art technology, we can now write data into the RFID tag electronically. Using dual Authentication, Stream Encryption and other security features we restrict access to un-authorized personnel for any particular information. In this project three units are important they are RFID Card, RFID Reader and Writer. Tags are programmable and they may be read or read/write i. e. the inform ation stored in the tag’s memory cannot be changed or can be updated as required. The reader powers the antenna to generate radio frequency waves to transmit a signal that activates the tag and allows data to come into or leave the tag’s memory.This card can be designed to hold all amount details including Name of the family head, ID number, resident address and amount has been recharged. chapter 2 [pic] 2. 1 Methodology of the study Methodology: This System assigns a unique card number for each house. A particular house person places the RFID card within 5cm distance from the RFID Reader. The RFID Reader reads down the time, date and for how much amount it was recharged. The success of recharge will be indicated on the LCD display with buzzer acknowledgement sound.The display also indicates the current energy utilization. The Interface software is responsible for energy utilization record processing and calculation amount for the utilized energy. 2. 2 EMBEDDED SYSTEM: Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software used to achieve a single specific task. An embedded system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system, autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.An embedded system is not a computer system that is used primarily for processing, not a software system on PC or UNIX, not a traditional business or scientific application. High-end embedded & lower end embedded systems. High-end embedded system – Generally 32, 64 Bit Controllers used with OS. Examples Personal Digital Assistant and Mobile phones etc . Lower end embedded systems – Generally 8,16 Bit Controllers used with an minimal operating systems and hardware layout designed for the specific purpose. Examples Small controllers and devices in our everyday life like Washing Machine, Microwave Ovens, where th ey are embedded in.SYSTEM DESIGN CALLS:[pic] THE EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN CYCLE: [pic] â€Å"V Diagram† In this place we need to discuss the role of simulation software, real-time systems and data acquisition in dynamic test applications. Traditional testing is referred to as â€Å"static† testing where functionality of components is tested by providing known inputs and measuring outputs. Today there is more pressure to get products to market faster and reduce design cycle times. This has led to a need for â€Å"dynamic† testing where components are tested while in use with the entire system – either real or simulated.Because of cost and safety concerns, simulating the rest of the the system with real-time hardware is preferred to testing components in the actual real system. The diagram shown on this slide is the â€Å"V Diagram† that is often used to describe the development cycle. Originally developed to encapsulate the design process of software applications, many different versions of this diagram can be found to describe different product design cycles. Here we have shown one example of such a diagram representing the design cycle of embedded control applications common to automotive, aerospace and defense applications.In this diagram the general progression in time of the development stages is shown from left to right. Note however that this is often an iterative process and the actual development will not proceed linearly through these steps. The goal of rapid development is to make this cycle as efficient as possible by minimizing the iterations required for a design. If the x-axis of the diagram is thought of as time, the goal is to narrow the â€Å"V† as much as possible and thereby reduce development time. The y-axis of this diagram can be thought of as the level at which the system components are considered.Early on in the development, the requirements of the overall system must be considered. As the system is divided into sub-systems and components, the process becomes very low-level down to the point of loading code onto individual processors. Afterwards components are integrated and tested together until such time that the entire system can enter final production testing. Therefore the top of the diagram represents the high-level system view and the bottom of the diagram represents a very low-level view. Notes: †¢ V diagram describes lots of applications—derived from software development. Reason for shape, every phase of design requires a complimentary test phase. High-level to low-level view of application. †¢ This is a simplified version. †¢ Loop Back/ Iterative process, X-axis is time (sum up). Characteristics of Embedded System: †¢ An embedded system is any computer system hidden inside a product other than a computer †¢ There will encounter a number of difficulties when writing embedded system software in addition to those we encounter when we wr ite applications – Throughput – Our system may need to handle a lot of data in a short period of time. Response–Our system may need to react to events quickly – Testability–Setting up equipment to test embedded software can be difficult – Debugability–Without a screen or a keyboard, finding out what the software is doing wrong (other than not working) is a troublesome problem – Reliability – embedded systems must be able to handle any situation without human intervention – Memory space – Memory is limited on embedded systems, and you must make the software and the data fit into whatever memory exists – Program installation – you will need special tools to get your oftware into embedded systems – Power consumption – Portable systems must run on battery power, and the software in these systems must conserve power – Processor hogs – computing that requires large amount s of CPU time can complicate the response problem – Cost – Reducing the cost of the hardware is a concern in many embedded system projects; software often operates on hardware that is barely adequate for the job. †¢ Embedded systems have a microprocessor/ microcontroller and a memory. Some have a serial port or a network connection. They usually do not have keyboards, screens or disk drives.APPLICATIONS: 1. Military and aerospace embedded software applications 2. Communication Applications 3. Industrial automation and process control software CLASSIFICATION: †¢ Real Time Systems. †¢ RTS is one which has to respond to events within a specified deadline. †¢ A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer RTS CLASSIFICATION: †¢ Hard Real Time Systems †¢ Soft Real Time System HARD REAL TIME SYSTEM: †¢ â€Å"Hard† real-time systems have very narrow response time. †¢ Example: Nuclear power system, Cardiac pacemaker. SOFT RE AL TIME SYSTEM: â€Å"Soft† real-time systems have reduced constrains on â€Å"lateness† but still must operate very quickly and repeatable. †¢ Example: Railway reservation system – takes a few extra seconds the data remains valid. LANGUAGES USED: †¢ C †¢ C++ †¢ Java †¢ Linux †¢ Ada †¢ Assembly MPLAB FEATURES: MPLAB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a free, integrated toolset for the development of embedded applications employing Microchip's PIC ® and dsPIC ® microcontrollers. MPLAB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a free, integrated toolset for the development of embedded applications employing Microchip's PIC ® and dsPIC ® microcontrollers.MPLAB IDE runs as a 32-bit application on MS Windows ®, is easy to use and includes a host of free software components for fast application development and super-charged debugging. MPLAB IDE also serves as a single, unified graphical user interface for additio nal Microchip and third party software and hardware development tools. Moving between tools is a snap, and upgrading from the free software simulator to hardware debug and programming tools is done in a flash because MPLAB IDE has the same user interface for all tools.MPLAB IDE’s SIM, high speed software simulator for PIC and dsPIC (Digital Signal Processing PIC Microcontroller) devices with peripheral simulation, complex stimulus injection and register logging. CHAPTER 3 [pic] 3. 1 Block Diagram of RFID PREPAID energy meter BLOCK DIAGRAM 3. 2 Description of the Block Diagram The AC main Block is the power supply which is of single phase 230V ac. This should be given to step down transformer to reduce the 230V ac voltage to low voltage. i. e. , to 6V or 12V ac this value depends on the transformer inner winding. The output of the transformer is given to the rectifier circuit.This rectifier converts ac voltage to dc voltage. But the voltage may consist of ripples or harmonics. To avoid these ripples the output of the rectifier is connected to filter. The filter thus removes the harmonics. This is the exact dc voltage of the given specification. But the controller operates at 5V dc and the relays and driver operates at 12V dc voltage. So we need a regulator to reduce the voltage. 7805 regulator produces 5V dc. The 7805 regulator produces 5V dc and this voltage is given to PIC micro controller and sensors. The outputs of the sensors are also given to PIC micro controller.LCD, Keypad unit, SMART CARD read and write unit are connected to the controller. The controller reads the SMART CARD data from SMART CARD reader. The controller displays the data on LCD, depends upon the energy consumption the amount will be reduced. [pic] 3. 3 circuit diagram of RFID PREPAID energy meter: [pic] 3. 4 Circuit Description POWER SUPPLY: Power supply unit consists of Step down transformer, Rectifier, Input filter, Regulator unit, Output filter. The Step down Transformer is us ed to step down the main supply voltage from 230V AC to lower value.This 230 AC voltage cannot be used directly, thus it is stepped down. The Transformer consists of primary and secondary coils. To reduce or step down the voltage, the transformer is designed to contain less number of turns in its secondary core. The output from the secondary coil is also AC waveform. Thus the conversion from AC to DC is essential. This conversion is achieved by using the Rectifier Circuit/Unit. The Rectifier circuit is used to convert the AC voltage into its corresponding DC voltage. There are Half-Wave, Full-Wave and bridge Rectifiers available for this specific function.The most important and simple device used in Rectifier circuit is the diode. The simple function of the diode is to conduct when forward biased and not to conduct in reverse bias. The Forward Bias is achieved by connecting the diode’s positive with positive of the battery and negative with battery’s negative. The effi cient circuit used is the Full wave Bridge rectifier circuit. The output voltage of the rectifier is in rippled form, the ripples from the obtained DC voltage are removed using other circuits available. The circuit used for removing the ripples is called Filter circuit.Capacitors are used as filter. The ripples from the DC voltage are removed and pure DC voltage is obtained. And also these capacitors are used to reduce the harmonics of the input voltage. The primary action performed by capacitor is charging and discharging. It charges in positive half cycle of the AC voltage and it will discharge in negative half cycle. Here we used 1000 µF capacitor. So it allows only AC voltage and does not allow the DC voltage. This filter is fixed before the regulator. Thus the output is free from ripples. Regulator regulates the output voltage to be always constant.The output voltage is maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input AC voltage. As and then the AC voltage changes, th e DC voltage also changes. Thus to avoid this Regulators are used. Also when the internal resistance of the power supply is greater than 30 ohms, the output gets affected. Thus this can be successfully reduced here. The regulators are mainly classified for low voltage and for high voltage. Here we used 7805 positive regulators. It reduces the 6V dc voltage to 5V dc Voltage. The Filter circuit is often fixed after the Regulator circuit. Capacitor is most often used as filter.The principle of the capacitor is to charge and discharge. It charges during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and discharges during the negative half cycle. So it allows only AC voltage and does not allow the DC voltage. This filter is fixed after the Regulator circuit to filter any of the possibly found ripples in the output received finally. Here we used 0. 1 µF capacitor. The output at this stage is 5V and is given to the Microcontroller Microcontroller and sensors are operated at 5V dc voltage. The output of the 7805 regulator is connected to PIC 16f877A microcontroller. Controller CircuitThe PIC 16f877A microcontroller is a 40-pin IC. The first pin of the controller is MCLR pin and the 5V dc supply is given to this pin through 10K? resistor. This supply is also given to 11th pin directly. The 12th pin of the controller is grounded. A tank circuit consists of a 4 MHZ crystal oscillator and two 22pf capacitors is connected to 13th and 14th pins of the PIC. The circuit consists of MAX-232 IC. It is a 16-pin dual in package IC. The 11th and 12th pins of MAX-232 IC are connected to the 25th and 26th pins of the PIC microcontroller. These are receiver OUT and Transmitter IN pins respectively.LCD is connected to the RC0 to RD7 pins of the PIC microcontroller. 13th, 14th and 15th pins of the MAX-232 IC are connected to the smart card read Buffer. The Keypad unit connected to the RB0 to RB3 pins of the PIC micro controller. The keypad unit consists of 4 switches. One is for menu, sec ond is Exit, third one is for Clear and the other is for Day Increment. MAX-232 IC is used to convert the voltage from 5V to 10V and 10V to 5V. This IC is used to communicate with the PC. It also acts as voltage converter. The LCD used here is to display the Attendance details. [pic] 3. 5 CIRCUIT OPERATIONThe input of the circuit is taken from the main. It is a single phase 230V ac voltage. This 230 AC voltage cannot be used directly, thus it is stepped down. The Step down Transformer is used to step down the main supply voltage from 230V AC to lower value. Because the microcontroller and sensors are operated at +5V dc voltage and relays and drivers will be operate at +12V dc voltage. So first this 230C AC voltage should be stepped down and then it should be converted to dc. After converting to dc it is applied to controller, sensors, relays and drivers. In this project we used 230/12V step down transformer.In this circuit we used two regulators. 7805 regulator for producing 5V dc, and 7812 regulators for 12V dc voltage. The output of 7805 regulators is given to PIC microcontroller and three sensors. The output of the 7812 regulator is connected to driver IC and a Relay. The main parts of this project are smart card and PIC micro controller. The coding will be installed to microcontroller through PIC Flash micro systems compiler unit. The crystal oscillator is used to generate the clock pulses to the PIC micro controller. The speed of the microcontroller depends upon the value of the crystal oscillator.In this project we used the 4 MHz crystal oscillator. Whenever recharged smart card shown in front of the reader the data from card will be read and send to controller through reader. The controller confirms whether it is old or new card. After this it will automatically open the lock to use EB power supply. If the wrong card shown, controller activate the alarm. Depends on the energy consumption the amount will reduced by the controller, when its come to below zero the controller automatically cut down the EB power supply through driver unit. In the driver unit ULN2003 is used as driver to driver the 12v relay.We inserted the process into the controller through coding. Coding was developed in Embedded ‘C’ Language. CHAPTER 4 [pic] 4. 1 Hardware Requirements: 1. Power supply unit 2. Microcontroller 3. MAX-232 IC 4. LCD 5. Keypad Unit 4. 2 POWER SUPPLY UNIT: Circuit Diagram [pic] Power supply unit consists of following units i) Step down transformer ii) Rectifier unit iii) Input filter iv) Regulator unit v) Output filter 4. 3. 1 Stepdown transformer: The Step down Transformer is used to step down the main supply voltage from 230V AC to lower value. This 230 AC voltage cannot be used directly, thus it is stepped down.The Transformer consists of primary and secondary coils. To reduce or step down the voltage, the transformer is designed to contain less number of turns in its secondary core. The output from the secondary coil is a lso AC waveform. Thus the conversion from AC to DC is essential. This conversion is achieved by using the Rectifier Circuit/Unit. 4. 3. 2 Rectifier Unit: The Rectifier circuit is used to convert the AC voltage into its corresponding DC voltage. There are Half-Wave, Full-Wave and bridge Rectifiers available for this specific function. The most important and simple device used in Rectifier circuit is the diode.The simple function of the diode is to conduct when forward biased and not to conduct in reverse bias. The Forward Bias is achieved by connecting the diode’s positive with positive of the battery and negative with battery’s negative. The efficient circuit used is the Full wave Bridge rectifier circuit. The output voltage of the rectifier is in rippled form, the ripples from the obtained DC voltage are removed using other circuits available. The circuit used for removing the ripples is called Filter circuit. 4. 3. 3 Input Filter: Capacitors are used as filter.The ri pples from the DC voltage are removed and pure DC voltage is obtained. And also these capacitors are used to reduce the harmonics of the input voltage. The primary action performed by capacitor is charging and discharging. It charges in positive half cycle of the AC voltage and it will discharge in negative half cycle. So it allows only AC voltage and does not allow the DC voltage. This filter is fixed before the regulator. Thus the output is free from ripples. 4. 3. 4 Regulator unit: [pic] 7805 Regulator Regulator regulates the output voltage to be always constant.The output voltage is maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input AC voltage. As and then the AC voltage changes, the DC voltage also changes. Thus to avoid this Regulators are used. Also when the internal resistance of the power supply is greater than 30 ohms, the output gets affected. Thus this can be successfully reduced here. The regulators are mainly classified for low voltage and for high voltage. Furth er they can also be classified as: i) Positive regulator 1—> input pin 2—> ground pin 3—> output pin It regulates the positive voltage. ii) Negative regulator —> ground pin 2—> input pin 3—> output pin It regulates the negative voltage. 4. 3. 5 Output Filter: The Filter circuit is often fixed after the Regulator circuit. Capacitor is most often used as filter. The principle of the capacitor is to charge and discharge. It charges during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and discharges during the negative half cycle. So it allows only AC voltage and does not allow the DC voltage. This filter is fixed after the Regulator circuit to filter any of the possibly found ripples in the output received finally. Here we used 0. 1 µF capacitor.The output at this stage is 5V and is given to the Microcontroller. 4. 4 MICRO CONTROLLER: A computer-on-a-chip is a variation of a microprocessor which combines the processor core (CPU), some memory, and I/O (input/output) lines, all on one chip. The computer-on-a-chip is called the microcomputer whose proper meaning is a computer using a (number of) microprocessor(s) as its CPUs, while the concept of the microcomputer is known to be a microcontroller. A microcontroller can be viewed as a set of digital logic circuits integrated on a single silicon chip. This chip is used for only specific applications. . 4. 1 ADVANTAGES OF USING A MICROCONTROLLER OVER MICROPROCESSOR: A designer will use a Microcontroller to 1. Gather input from various sensors 2. Process this input into a set of actions 3. Use the output mechanisms on the Microcontroller to do something useful 4. RAM and ROM are inbuilt in the MC. 5. Cheap compared to MP. 6. Multi machine control is possible simultaneously. Examples: 8051 (ATMAL), PIC (Microchip), Motorola (Motorola), ARM Processor, Applications: Cell phones, Computers, Robots, Interfacing to two pc’s. 4. 4. 2 Microcontroller Core Features: †¢ High-per formance RISC CPU. Only 35 single word instructions to learn. †¢ All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle. †¢ Operating speed: DC – 20 MHz clock input DC – 200 ns instruction cycle. †¢ Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM) Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM data memory. †¢ Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77 †¢ Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources) †¢ Eight level deep hardware stack †¢ Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes. †¢ Power-on Reset (POR). †¢ Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST). Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable operation. †¢ Programmable code-protection. †¢ Power saving SLEEP mode. †¢ Selectable oscillator options. †¢ Low-power, high-speed CMOS FLASH/EEPROM technology. †¢ Fully static design. †¢ In-Circuit Serial Programming (ICSP ) . †¢ Single 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming capability. †¢ In-Circuit Debugging via two pins. †¢ Processor read/write access to program memory. †¢ Wide operating voltage range: 2. 0V to 5. 5V. †¢ High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA. †¢ Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges. †¢ Low-power consumption.In this project we used PIC 16f877A microcontroller. PIC means Peripheral Interface Controller. The PIC family having different series. The series are 12- Series, 14- Series, 16- Series, 18- Series, and 24- Series. We used 16 Series PIC microcontroller. 3. PIC MICROCONTROLLER 16F877A 1. INTRODUCTION TO PIC MICROCONTROLLER 16F877A The PIC 16f877A microcontroller is a 40-pin IC. The first pin of the controller is MCLR pin and the 5V dc supply is given to this pin through 10K? resistor. This supply is also given to 11th pin directly. The 12th pin of the controller is grounded.A tank circuit consists of a 4 MHZ crystal oscillator and two 22pf capacitor s is connected to 13th and 14th pins of the PIC. 2. FEATURES OF PIC MICROCONTROLLER 16F877A †¢ Operating frequency: DC-20Mhz. †¢ Flash program memory (14 bit words):8K †¢ Data memory (in bytes): 368 †¢ EEPROM Data memory (in bytes):256 †¢ Interrupts: 15 †¢ I/o ports: A, B, C, D, E †¢ Timers: 3 †¢ Analog comparators: 2 †¢ Instructions: 35 4. 3. 3 pin diagram of pic 16f874a/877a: [pic] 4. 3. 4 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PIC 16F877A [pic] 4. 4 LCD Display: Liquid crystal display (LCD) has material which combines the properties of both liquid and crystals.They have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an order form similar to a crystal. LCD DISPLAY: [pic] More microcontroller devices are using ‘smart LCD' displays to output visual information. The following discussion covers the connection of a Hitachi LCD display to a PIC microcontroller. LCD disp lays designed around Hitachi's LCD HD44780 module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it is even possible to produce a readout using the 8 x 80 pixels of the display.Hitachi LCD displays have a standard ASCII set of characters plus Japanese, Greek and mathematical symbols. For an 8-bit data bus, the display requires a +5V supply plus 11 I/O lines. For a 4-bit data bus it only requires the supply lines plus seven extra lines. When the LCD display is not enabled, data lines are tri-state which means they are in a state of high impedance (as though they are disconnected) and this means they do not interfere with the operation of the microcontroller when the display is not being addressed. The LCD also requires 3 â€Å"control† lines from the microcontroller. Enable (E) |This  line allows access to the display through R/W and RS lines. When this line is low, the LCD is disabled and | | |ignores signals from R/W and RS. When (E) line is high, the LCD checks the state of the two c ontrol lines and | | |responds accordingly. | |Read/Write (R/W) |This line determines the direction of data between the LCD and microcontroller. When it is low, data is written | | |to the LCD. When it is high, data is read from the LCD. |Register select (RS) |With the help of this line, the LCD interprets the type of data on data lines. When it is low, an instruction is | | |being written to the LCD. When it is high, a character is being written to the LCD. | Logic status on control lines: E  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   0 Access to LCD disabled 1 Access to LCD enabled R/W 0 Writing data to LCD 1 Reading data from LCD RS  Ã‚  Ã‚   0 Instruction 1 Character Writing data to the LCD is done in several steps: Set R/W bit to low Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character) Set data to data lines (if it is writing) Set E line to highSet E line to low Read data from data lines (if it is reading). Reading data from the LCD is done in the same way, but control line R/W has to be high. When we send a high to the LCD, it will reset and wait for instructions. Typical instructions sent to LCD display after a reset are: turning on a display, turning on a cursor and writing characters from left to right. When the LCD is initialized, it is ready to continue receiving data or instructions. If it receives a character, it will write it on the display and move the cursor one space to the right. The Cursor marks the next location where a character will be written.When we want to write a string of characters, first we need to set up the starting address, and then send one character at a time. Characters that can be shown on the display are stored in data display (DD) RAM. The size of DDRAM is 80 bytes. |The LCD display also possesses 64 bytes of Character-Generator (CG)|[pic] | |RAM. This memory is used for characters defined by the user. Data | | |in CG RAM is represented as an 8-bit character bit-map.Each | | |character takes up 8 bytes of CG RAM, so the total number of | | |ch aracters, which the user can define, is eight. In order to read | | |in the character bit-map to the LCD display, we must first set the | | |CG RAM address to starting point (usually 0), and then write data | | |to the display.The definition of a ‘special' character is given in| | |the picture. | | Before we access DD RAM after defining a special character, the program must set the DD RAM address. Writing and reading data from any LCD memory is done from the last address which was set up using set-address instruction. Once the address of DD RAM is set, a new written character will be displayed at the appropriate place on the screen.Until now we discussed the operation of writing and reading to an LCD as if it were an ordinary memory. But this is not so. The LCD controller needs 40 to 120 microseconds (uS) for writing and reading. Other operations can take up to 5 mS. During that time, the microcontroller can not access the LCD, so a program needs to know when the LCD is bu sy. We can solve this in two ways. One way is to check the BUSY bit found on data line D7. This is not the best method because LCD's can get stuck, and program will then stay forever in a loop checking the BUSY bit. The other way is to introduce a delay in the program.The delay has to be long enough for the LCD to finish the operation in process. Instructions for writing to and reading from an LCD memory are shown in the previous table. At the beginning we mentioned that we needed 11 I/O lines to communicate with an LCD. However, we can communicate with an LCD through a 4-bit data bus. Thus we can reduce the total number of communication lines to seven. The wiring for connection via a 4-bit data bus is shown in the diagram below. In this example we use an LCD display with 2Ãâ€"16 characters, labeled LM16X212 by Japanese maker SHARP.The message ‘character' is written in the first row: and two special characters ‘~' and ‘}' are displayed. In the second row we have p roduced the word ‘mikroElektronika'. INTERFACING PIC MICROCONTROLLER TO LCD: [pic] 4. 5 DESIGN OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM Like every other system development design cycle embedded system too have a design cycle. The flow of the system will be like as given below. For any design cycle these will be the implementation steps. From the initial state of the project to the final fabrication the design considerations will be taken like the software consideration and the hardware components, sensor, input and output.The electronics usually uses either a microprocessor or a microcontroller. Some large or old systems use general-purpose mainframe computers or minicomputers. User Interfaces: User interfaces for embedded systems vary widely, and thus deserve some special comment. User interface is the ultimate aim for an embedded module as to the user to check the output with complete convenience. One standard interface, widely used in embedded systems, uses two buttons (the absolute minimum) to control a menu system (just to be clear, one button should be â€Å"next menu entry† the other button should be â€Å"select this menu entry†).Another basic trick is to minimize and simplify the type of output. Designs sometimes use a status light for each interface plug, or failure condition, to tell what failed. A cheap variation is to have two light bars with a printed matrix of errors that they select- the user can glue on the labels for the language that he speaks. For example, most small computer printers use lights labeled with stick-on labels that can be printed in any language. In some markets, these are delivered with several sets of labels, so customers can pick the most comfortable language.In many organizations, one person approves the user interface. Often this is a customer, the major distributor or someone directly responsible for selling the system. PLATFORM: There are many different CPU architectures used in embedded designs such as ARM, MIPS, Coldfir e/68k, PowerPC, X86, PIC, 8051, Atmel AVR, H8, SH, V850, FR-V, M32R etc. This in contrast to the desktop computer market, which as of this writing (2003) is limited to just a few competing architectures, mainly the Intel/AMD x86, and the Apple/Motorola/IBM PowerPC, used in the Apple Macintosh.With the growing acceptance of Java in this field, there is a tendency to even further eliminate the dependency on specific CPU/hardware (and OS) requirements. Standard PC/104 is a typical base for small, low-volume embedded and rugged zed system design. These often use DOS, Linux or an embedded real-time operating system such as QNX or Inferno. A common configuration for very-high-volume embedded systems is the system on a chip, an application-specific integrated circuit, for which the CPU was purchased as intellectual property to add to the IC's design.A related common scheme is to use a field-programmable gate array, and program it with all the logic, including the CPU. Most modern FPGAs are designed for this purpose. Tools: Like typical computer programmers, embedded system designers use compilers, assemblers, and debuggers to develop embedded system software. However, they also use a few tools that are unfamiliar to most programmers. Software tools can come from several sources: †¢ Software companies that specialize in the embedded market. †¢ Ported from the GNU software development tools.Sometimes, development tools for a personal computer can be used if the embedded processor is a close relative to a common PC processor. Embedded system designers also use a few software tools rarely used by typical computer programmers. One common tool is an â€Å"in-circuit emulator† (ICE) or, in more modern designs, an embedded debugger. This debugging tool is the fundamental trick used to develop embedded code. It replaces or plugs into the microprocessor, and provides facilities to quickly load and debug experimental code in the system. A small pod usually prov ides the special electronics to plug into the system.Often a personal computer with special software attaches to the pod to provide the debugging interface. Another common tool is a utility program (often home-grown) to add a checksum or CRC to a program, so it can check its program data before executing it. An embedded programmer that develops software for digital signal processing often has a math workbench such as MathCad or Mathematica to simulate the mathematics. Less common are utility programs to turn data files into code, so one can include any kind of data in a program. A few projects use Synchronous programming languages for extra reliability or digital signal processing.DEBUGGING: Debugging is usually performed with an in-circuit emulator, or some type of debugger that can interrupt the microcontroller's internal microcode. The microcode interrupt lets the debugger operate in hardware in which only the CPU works. The CPU-based debugger can be used to test and debug the el ectronics of the computer from the viewpoint of the CPU. This feature was pioneered on the PDP-11. As the complexity of embedded systems grows, higher level tools and operating systems are migrating into machinery where it makes sense.For example, cell phones, personal digital assistants and other consumer computers often need significant software that is purchased or provided by a person other than the manufacturer of the electronics. In these systems, an open programming environment such as Linux, OSGi or Embedded Java is required so that the third-party software provider can sell to a large market. OPERATING SYSTEM: Embedded systems often have no operating system, or a specialized embedded operating system (often a real-time operating system), or the programmer is assigned to port one of these to the new system.BUILT- IN SELF- TEST: Most embedded systems have some degree or amount of built-in self-test. There are several basic types. 1. Testing the computer. 2. Test of peripheral s. 3. Tests of power. 4. Communication tests. 5. Cabling tests. 6. Rigging tests. 7. Consumables test. 8. Operational test. 9. Safety test. START UP: All embedded systems have start-up code. Usually it disables interrupts, sets up the electronics, tests the computer (RAM, CPU and software), and then starts the application code. Many embedded systems recover from short-term power failures by restarting (without recent self-tests).Restart times under a tenth of a second are common. Many designers have found a few LEDs useful to indicate errors (they help troubleshooting). A common scheme is to have the electronics turn on all of the LED(s) at reset (thereby proving that power is applied and the LEDs themselves work), whereupon the software changes the LED pattern as the Power-On Self Test executes. After that, the software may blink the LED(s) or set up light patterns during normal operation to indicate program execution progress or errors. This serves to reassure most technicians/eng ineers and some users.An interesting exception is that on electric power meters and other items on the street, blinking lights are known to attract attention and vandalism. CHAPTER 5 [pic] 5. 1 Software Tools: 1. MPLAB 2. Protel 3. Propic 4. HI-Tech PIC C Compiler 5. 2 MPLAB Integration: MPLAB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a free, integrated toolset for the development of embedded applications employing Microchip's PIC micro and dsPIC microcontrollers. MPLAB IDE runs as a 32-bit application on MS Windows, is easy to use and includes a host of free software components for fast application development and super-charged debugging.MPLAB IDE also serves as a single, unified graphical user interface for additional Microchip and third party software and hardware development tools. Moving between tools is a snap, and upgrading from the free simulator to MPLAB ICD 2 or the MPLAB ICE emulator is done in a flash because MPLAB IDE has the same user interface for all tools. Choose MPLAB C18, the highly optimized compiler for the PIC18 series microcontrollers, or try the newest Microchip's language tools compiler, MPLAB C30, targeted at the high performance PIC24 and dsPIC digital signal controllers.Or, use one of the many products from third party language tools vendors. They integrate into MPLAB IDE to function transparently from the MPLAB project manager, editor and compiler. 5. 3 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED ‘C’: Ex: Hitec – c, Keil – c HI-TECH Software makes industrial-strength software development tools and C compilers that help software developers write compact, efficient embedded processor code. For over two decades HI-TECH Software has delivered the industry's most reliable embedded software development tools and compilers for writing efficient and compact code to run on the most popular embedded processors.Used by tens of thousands of customers including General Motors, Whirlpool, Qualcomm, John Deere and many others, HI-TECH's reliable development tools and C compilers, combined with world-class support have helped serious embedded software programmers to create hundreds of breakthrough new solutions. Whichever embedded processor family you are targeting with your software, whether it is the ARM, PICC or 8051 series, HI-TECH tools and C compilers can help you write better code and bring it to market faster. HI-TECH PICC is a high-performance C compiler for the Microchip PIC micro 10/12/14/16/17 series of microcontrollers.HI-TECH PICC is an industrial-strength ANSI C compiler – not a subset implementation like some other PIC compilers. The PICC compiler implements full ISO/ANSI C, with the exception of recursion. All data types are supported including 24 and 32 bit IEEE standard floating point. HI-TECH PICC makes full use of specific PIC features and using an intelligent optimizer, can generate high-quality code easily rivaling hand-written assembler. Automatic handling of page and bank selection f rees the programmer from the trivial details of assembler code. 5. 4 Embedded C Compiler: ? ANSI C – full featured and portable Reliable – mature, field-proven technology ? Multiple C optimization levels ? An optimizing assembler ? Full linker, with overlaying of local variables to minimize RAM usage ? Comprehensive C library with all source code provided ? Includes support for 24-bit and 32-bit IEEE floating point and 32-bit long data types ? Mixed C and assembler programming ? Unlimited number of source files ? Listings showing generated assembler ? Compatible – integrates into the MPLAB IDE, MPLAB ICD and most 3rd-party development tools ? Runs on multiple platforms: Windows, Linux, UNIX, Mac OS X, Solaris Embedded Development Environment:PICC can be run entirely from the. This environment allows you to manage all of your PIC projects. You can compile, assemble and link your embedded application with a single step. Optionally, the compiler may be run directly from the command line, allowing you to compile, assemble and link using one command. This enables the compiler to be integrated into third party development environments, such as Microchip's MPLAB IDE. 5. 5 Embedded system tools: 5. 5. 1 Assembler: An assembler is a computer program for translating assembly language — essentially, a mnemonic representation of machine language — into object code.A cross assembler (see cross compiler) produces code for one type of processor, but runs on another. The computational step where an assembler is run is known as assembly time. Translating assembly instruction mnemonics into opcodes, assemblers provide the ability to use symbolic names for memory locations (saving tedious calculations and manually updating addresses when a program is slightly modified), and macro facilities for performing textual substitution — typically used to encode common short sequences of instructions to run inline instead of in a subroutine.Assemb lers are far simpler to write than compilers for high-level languages. Assembly language has several benefits: †¢ Speed: Assembly language programs are generally the fastest programs around. †¢ Space: Assembly language programs are often the smallest. †¢ Capability: You can do things in assembly which are difficult or impossible in High level languages. †¢ Knowledge: Your knowledge of assembly language will help you write better programs, even when using High level languages. An example of an assembler we use in our project is RAD 51. . 5. 2 Simulator: Simulator is a machine that simulates an environment for the purpose of training or research. We use a UMPS simulator for this purpose in our project. 5. 5. 3 UMPS: Universal microprocessor program simulator simulates a microcontroller with its external environment. UMPS is able to simulate external components connected to the microcontroller. Then, debug step is dramatically reduced. UMPS is not dedicated to only one microcontroller family, it can simulate all kind of microcontrollers.The main limitation is to have less than 64K-Bytes of RAM and ROM space and the good microcontroller library. UMPS provide all the facilities other low-cost simulator does not have. It offers the user to see the â€Å"real effect† of a program and a way to change the microcontroller family without changing IDE. UMPS provide a low-cost solution to the problems. UMPS is really the best solution to your evaluation. 5. 5. 4 UMPS key features: -The speed, UMPS can run as fast as 1/5 the real microcontroller speed. No need to wait 2 days to see the result of a LCD routine access.All the microcontroller parts are simulated, interrupts, communication protocol, parallel handshake, timer and so on. – UMPS have an integrated assembler/disassembler and debugger. It is able to accept an external assembler or compiler. It has a text editor which is not limited to 64K-bytes and shows keyword with color. It can a lso communicate with an external compiler to integrate all the debug facilities you need. – UMPS is universal, it can easily be extended to other microcontroller with a library. Ask us for toolkit development. – External resource simulation is not limited.It can be extended to your proper needs by writing your own DLL. – UMPS allows you to evaluate at the lowest cost the possibility to build a microcontroller project without any cable. – UMPS include a complete documentation on each microcontroller which describe special registers and each instruction 5. 5. 5 Compiler: A compiler is a program that reads a program in one language, the source language and translates into an equivalent program in another language, the target language. The translation process should also report the presence of errors in the source program. Source Program |> |  Compiler |> |Target Program | |   |   |v |   |   | |   |   |Error Messages |   |   | There are two parts of compilation. The analysis part breaks up the source program into constant piece and creates an intermediate representation of the source program. The synthesis part constructs the desired target program from the intermediate representation. 5. 5. 6 The cousins of the compiler are: 1. Preprocessor. 2.Assembler. 3. Loader and Link-editor. A naive approach to that front end might run the phases serially. 1. Lexical analyzer takes the source program as an input and produces a long string of tokens. 2. Syntax Analyzer takes an out of lexical analyzer and produces a large tree. Semantic analyzer takes the output of syntax analyzer and produces another tree. Similarly, intermediate code generator takes a tree as an input produced by semantic analyzer and produces  intermediate code 5. 5. 7 Phases of compiler: The compiler has a number of phases plus symbol table manager and an error handler.    |   |Input Source Program |   |   | |   |   |v |   |   | |   |   |Lexical Analyzer |   |   | |   |   |v |   |   | |   |   |Syntax Analyzer |   |   | |   |   |v |   |   | |Symbol Table Manager |   |Semantic Analyzer |   |  Error Handler | |   |   |v |   |   | |   |   |Intermediate Code |   |   | | | |Generator | | | |   |   |v |   |   | |   | Code Optimizer |   |   | |   |   |v |   |   | |   |   |Code Generator |   |   | |   |   |v |   |   | |   |   |Out Target Program |   |   | 5. 6 FABRICATION DETAILS The fabrication of one demonstration unit is carried out in the following sequence. ? Finalizing the total circuit diagram, listing out the components and sources of procurement. ? Procuring the components, testing the components and screening the components. ? Making layout, repairing the interconnection diagram as per the circuit diagram. Assembling the components as per the component layout and circuit diagram and soldering components. ? Integrating t he total unit, intertwining the unit and final testing the unit. CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION The System RFID BASED ENERGY is developed and operated successfully in the laboratory. The prepaid energy meter was working properly and perfectly. The circuit having potential and current transformers which gives the power consumption in analog form. This is converted to digital and the converted one is again converted into KWH form i. e one unit. According to the tariff rates stored in the microcontroller, The consumed units and cost are displayed on the LCD. Future enhancements: Our project is just to caluculate the reading i. consumed power and caluculate the cost and then display the cost on the LCD. In future this circuit can also be used as a prepaid energy meter using a smart type arrangement. For we want to add a smart card reader and relay in extra. Due to this every customer has a smart card with some credits and after completing these credits we again go to EB and recharge the card. The energy meter reading can be send to the EB by implementing small kind of SCADA system, using this the readings can be straightly monitor by the EB. CODE: #include;pic. h; #include†lcd_16x4. c† __CONFIG(XT & WDTDIS & PWRTDIS & BORDIS & LVPDIS & WRTEN & DEBUGDIS & DUNPROT & UNPROTECT); void init(); oid ADC_VTG_CT(); void ADC_VTG_CT1(); void disp_meter(); void delay(); write_eeprom(unsigned char add,unsigned int data); unsigned int read_eeprom(unsigned char add); unsigned int i, j,bal,gsmcost, curt,vltg,crt,tmp,tmp1,k,fcrt,escp,cap_time,testeng,Engeeprom,tempvalue,ROTabv100=0,ROTupt100=0; bank2 unsigned char mill_count,tick1=0,h[15],rec=0; bank1 unsigned char sec, min,hr,check1,VHUDS,VTENS,VONES,CHUDS, CTENS, CONES,COLACK,COTENTH, ETHOD,EHUDS,ETENS,EONES,COTHOD,COHUDS,COTENS,COONES,EEONES,EETHOD,EETENS,EEHUDS,EELACK,EETENTH,unteeprom,unit,var=0,u11,u12,u13; unsigned char tm,tt,th,ctl; float cpwt1,cpwt2,Energy,Cost_engy,Cost; bit check_dev,card_present; ank2 unsigned char q t,msg,n,set1=0,set2=0,set3=0,set,set4=0,tab,cap,cap1,cap2,eeprom_erase_cnt; unsigned interrupt isr(void) { if(TMR1IF) { TMR1IF=0; mill_count++; //mill_count, scan_count, keypress, check, keyok,key if(mill_count;=25) { mill_count=0; sec++; if(sec;=59) { tick1=1; sec =0; ctl=1; min++; if(min;59) { min=0; hr++; if(hr;23) { hr=0; } } } }//mill_count }//TMR1IF if(RCIF==1) { h[rec]=RCREG; rec++; if(rec==12) { card_present=1; rec=0; } RCIF=0; } } void main() { init(); RC4=0; while(1) { lcd_move(0,0); lcd_puts(â€Å"Energy Meter†); RC4=0; if(card_present==1) { lcd_move(1,0); lcd_puts(â€Å"Recharged:†); if(h[9]==51) { lcd_move(1,10); lcd_puts(â€Å"Rs. 100†); or(j=0;j;=45000;j++); for(j=0;j;=45000;j++); gsmcost= 100; set1=1; card_present==0; lcd_clear(); } if(h[9]==56) { lcd_move(1,10); lcd_puts(â€Å"Rs. 50 â€Å"); for(j=0;j;=45000;j++); for(j=0;j;=45000;j++); gsmcost= 50; set1=1; card_present==0; lcd_clear(); } } while(set1==1) //&& SW==1) { //while(SW==1); lcd_mov e(0,0); lcd_puts(â€Å"Energy Meter†); COLACK =read_eeprom(0x00); COTENTH =read_eeprom(0x01); COTHOD =read_eeprom(0x02); COHUDS =read_eeprom(0x03); COTENS =read_eeprom(0x04); COONES =read_eeprom(0x05); Engeeprom = ((COLACK*100000)+(COTENTH*10000)+(COTHOD*1000)+(CHUDS *100)+(COTENS *10)+COONES); unteeprom =read_eeprom(0x06); ROTupt100 =read_eeprom(0x07);ROTabv100 =read_eeprom(0x08); disp_meter(); RC4=1; DelayMs(10); ADC_VTG_CT(); } while(set2) { lcd_move(0,0); //lcd_putn(check1); disp_meter(); ADC_VTG_CT1(); lcd_move(0,0); lcd_puts(â€Å"vtg:†); lcd_write(VHUDS+0x30); lcd_write(VTENS+0x30); lcd_write(VONES+0x30); lcd_move(0,8); lcd_puts(â€Å"crt:†); lcd_write(CHUDS+0x30); lcd_puts(â€Å". â€Å"); lcd_write(CTENS+0x30); lcd_write(CONES+0x30); RC4=1; DelayMs(10); if(curt) { tm = min – cap_time; //check1=1; if(min ; 58) { th++; } tt = (th*60)+tm; if(ctl==1) { ctl=0; //check1=2; Energy = ((vltg * curt *(float)tt)/100000); Energy = Energy*1000; testeng = (i nt)Energy; Energy = Energy/1000; Cost = Energy * cpwt1;Cost_engy = Cost + Cost_engy; bal = gsmcost – Cost_engy ; Cost_engy = Cost_engy*1000; Engeeprom = (int)Cost_engy; //bal = gsmcost – Engeeprom ; fcrt =bal; COLACK = fcrt/100000; fcrt=fcrt%100000; COTENTH=fcrt/10000; fcrt=fcrt%10000; COTHOD=fcrt/1000; fcrt=fcrt%1000; COHUDS=fcrt/100; fcrt=fcrt%100; COTENS=fcrt/10; fcrt=fcrt%10; COONES=fcrt; write_eeprom(0x00,COLACK); write_eeprom(0x01,COTENTH); write_eeprom(0x02,COTHOD); write_eeprom(0x03,COHUDS); write_eeprom(0x04,COTENS); write_eeprom(0x05,COONES); DelayMs(2); Cost_engy = Cost_engy/1000; if(Energy;0. 900) { Energy = 0; unit++; unteeprom = unit; write_eeprom(0x06,unteeprom); DelayMs(2); if(unit==100) { cpwt1 = cpwt2; nit = 0; } } } } else { set1=1; set2=0; lcd_clear(); } /*if(SW==1) { while(SW==1); RC4=0; set1=0; set2=0; lcd_clear(); } */ }//while(set2) }//while(1) }//main() void init() { TRISA = 0xFF; TRISB = 0xF0; TRISC = 0x80; PORTB = 0x00; ADCON1=0X82; GIE=PEIE= TMR1IE=RCIE=1; TMR1L=0X17; TMR1H=0XFC; SPBRG=25; BRGH=1; RCSTA=0X90; TXSTA=0X24; cpwt1 = . 4; Cost_engy = 0; unit = 0; unteeprom = 0; Engeeprom = 0; eeprom_erase_cnt=read_eeprom(0x10); if(eeprom_erase_cnt;5) { eeprom_erase_cnt=0; write_eeprom(0x10,0); write_eeprom(0x00,0); write_eeprom(0x01,0); write_eeprom(0x02,0); write_eeprom(0x03,0); write_eeprom(0x04,0); write_eeprom(0x05,0); } else { eprom_erase_cnt++; write_eeprom(0x10,eeprom_erase_cnt); } lcd_init(); //set1=1; T1CON=0X01; DelayMs(10); } void disp_meter() { if(set1) { lcd_move(1,0); lcd_puts(â€Å"U:†); lcd_putn(unteeprom); } if(set2) { fcrt =testeng; ETHOD=fcrt/1000; fcrt=fcrt%1000; EHUDS=fcrt/100; fcrt=fcrt%100; ETENS=fcrt/10; fcrt=fcrt%10; EONES=fcrt; lcd_move(1,0); lcd_puts(â€Å"E:†); lcd_write(ETHOD+0x30); lcd_puts(â€Å". â€Å"); lcd_write(EHUDS+0x30); lcd_write(ETENS+0x30); lcd_write(EONES+0x30); } lcd_move(1,8); lcd_puts(â€Å"C:†); if(COLACK) { lcd_write(COLACK+0x30); lcd_write(COTENTH+0x30); lcd_write(COTHOD+0x30); } else if(COTENTH) { lcd_write(COTENTH+0x30); lcd_write(COTHOD+0x30); //lcd_puts(â€Å". ); lcd_write(COHUDS+0x30); lcd_write(COTENS+0x30); //lcd_write(COONES+0x30); } else { lcd_write(COTHOD+0x30); lcd_puts(â€Å". â€Å"); lcd_write(COHUDS+0x30); lcd_write(COTENS+0x30); lcd_write(COONES+0x30); } /*********************AT COMMANDS********gsm energy meter coding********* if(tick1==1) { tick1=0; u11=unteeprom/100; u12=(unteeprom%100)/10; u13=unteeprom%10; sendtopc1(â€Å"AT†); TXREG=13; while(! TXREG); delay(); for(k=0; k

Postmodern Social Theory Essay

Postmodern social theory is a field which is both difficult to define and rejects being defined. Postmodern theory is largely concerned with the ways our perceptions and reality are constructed. Postmodern social theory is a field of diverse and at times contradictory ideas that try to describe the relations of characters to society of the infrastructures and information age. Social reality is distinct from objective reality and individual subjective reality because it refers to the socially constructed nature of most of our shared institutions, beliefs and values. Social reality can be thought of as the sum of the social constructs in a society, or as the result of the social interactions between individuals within a society. Various authors have pursued to overcome this difficulty by trusting on common characteristics of various postmodern theories; also others have defined the field by those who work in it. Many have evaded any attempts to define it at all. Nevertheless of which of these methods one takes, however, there is no denying that postmodern social theory was at one time a booming presence in sociology. Despite this â€Å"death† of postmodern theory, however, its short life has had profound effects on the way social theorists do theory, and I think that it will, in no doubt, continue to have such an effect for a long time to come. There is also no denying that that time has passed and that now postmodern social theory is little more than a memory of a past era in social thought. Conclusion Postmodern social theory discards the desires and skills of modern social theory, moving away from grand descriptions, rational theorizing and towards a deconstruction of general truths, a decentering that is attuned to difference and locality.

I am Woman; Hear Me Roar! - essays

I am Woman; Hear Me Roar! - essays Do you take this man to be your husband, to have and to hold from this day forward; for better or worse, for richer or poorer, in sickness and in health. To love and to cherish till death do you part? Many women cannot wait to say, I do. to the man they love and spend the rest of their lives with him. Unfortunately, marriage and the treatment of women was not as romantic as this many centuries ago. A few writers, however, spoke out against this even when it was against normality. Their criticisms found in their stories and plays include men as figures of authority to women, the mistreatment of women, arranged marriages, suppressed sexuality, and life without true love. Traditionally, a woman was supposed to always listen and obey any man who was seen to have authority over her. However, a leading doctrine of the Enlightenment shared by these writers includes All men [and women] are equal in respect to their rationality. Many of them often wrote about women standing up for themselves and showing incredible strength and wisdom. In School for Wives, Molires leading female, Agns, is described as innocent and naive because Arnolphe had her raised to be this way. At the end of the play, though, she portrays a lot of wisdom even though she had no schooling. In her conversation with Arnolphe, she teaches him more about life and love than he ever thought he knew. Other examples of powerful women include Chrtien De Troyes main female character, Laudine, in his story Knight with the Lion. Here, Laudine must grieve her husband while also find a knight for a new husband to protect her kingdom. Her strength and wisdom throughout the story parallels the beliefs of Enlightenment thinkers. Another example is a story written by Giovanni Boccaccio. When a woman is caught cheating on her husband, she is brought to court by him to be sentenced. Surprisingly though, s...

Fujiwhara Effect - Two Hurricanes Interacting

Fujiwhara Effect - Two Hurricanes Interacting The Fujiwara Effect is an interesting phenomenon which can happen when two or more hurricanes form very near each other. In 1921, a Japanese meteorologist named Dr. Sakuhei Fujiwhara determined that two storms will sometimes move around a common center pivot point. The National Weather Service defines the Fujiwhara Effect as the tendency of two nearby tropical cyclones to rotate cyclonically about each other. Another slightly more technical definition of the Fujiwhara Effect from the National Weather Service is a binary interaction where tropical cyclones within a certain distance (300-750 nautical miles depending on the sizes of the cyclones) of each other begin to rotate about a common midpoint. The effect is also known as the Fujiwara Effect without an ‘h’ in the name. Fujiwhara’s studies indicate storms will rotate around a common center of mass. A similar effect is seen in the rotation of the Earth and moon. This barycenter is the center pivot point around which two rotating bodies in space will spin. The specific location of this center of gravity is determined by the relative intensity of the tropical storms. This interaction will sometimes lead to tropical storms dancing with each other around the dance floor of the ocean. Examples of the Fujiwhara Effect In 1955, two hurricanes formed very near each other. Hurricanes Connie and Diane at one point seemed to be one huge hurricane. The vortices were moving around each other in a counterclockwise motion. In September 1967, Tropical storms Ruth and Thelma began to interact with each other as they approached Typhoon Opal. At the time, satellite imagery was in its infancy as TIROS, the worlds first weather satellite, was only launched in 1960. To date, this was the best imagery of the Fujiwhara Effect yet seen. In July of 1976, hurricanes Emmy and Frances also showed the typical dance of the storms as they interacted with each other. Another interesting event occurred in 1995 when four tropical waves formed in the Atlantic. The storms would later be named Humberto, Iris, Karen, and Luis. A satellite image of the 4 tropical storms shows each of the cyclones from left to right. Tropical storm Iris was heavily influenced by the formation of Humberto before it, and Karen after it. Tropical Storm Iris moved through the islands of the northeastern Caribbean during late August and produced locally heavy rains and associated flooding according to the NOAA National Data Center. Iris later absorbed Karen on September 3, 1995 but not before altering the paths of both Karen and Iris. Hurricane Lisa was a storm that formed on September 16, 2004 as a tropical depression. The depression was located between Hurricane Karl to the west and another tropical wave to the southeast. As hurricane Karl influenced Lisa, the quickly approaching tropical disturbance to the east moved in on Lisa and the two began to show a Fujiwhara Effect. Cyclones Fame and Gula are shown in an image from January 29, 2008. The two storms formed just days apart. The storms briefly interacted, although they remained separate storms. Initially, it was thought the two would exhibit more of a Fujiwhara interaction, but despite weakening a bit, the storms stayed intact without causing the weaker of the two storms to dissipate. Sources: Stormchasers: The Hurricane Hunters and Their Fateful Flight Into Hurricane JanetNOAA National Data CenterAnnual Summary of the 2004 Atlantic Hurricane SeasonAnnual Summary of the 1995 Atlantic Hurricane SeasonMonthly Weather Review: An Example of the Fujiwhara Effect in the West Pacific OceanNASA Earth Observatory: Cyclone GulaCyclones Olaf and Nancy

The good citizen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The good citizen - Essay Example He/she is also pleasant and well mannered, and always eager to learn (Glassman, 2008). A good citizen is compassionate and takes responsibility for his or her actions. He/she is a good neighbor and respects other people’s property. Student 1: He believes that society needs prudent and honest citizens to endure. Every society values hardworking citizens. According to him, the inherent characteristics of a good citizen would include taking on personal responsibility, being trustworthy and truthful, fighting for the underprivileged in society, being sympathetic to the needy, being a champion of positive change, contributing to society, and taking on personal responsibility. Other important characteristics include defending the rights of other people, being compassionate for the neglected, extending common courtesies, and respecting authority. Student 2: According to Student 2, the most important trait of a good citizen or good citizenship is honesty. He argues that good citizens are honest, truthful and sincere in their relationship with others, work, and leisure. Apart from honesty, the other important characteristic of a good citizen is compassion. Compassion is the kind of emotion or feeling that people who care for and watch over other people as well as living things have. It enables citizens to see or consider the importance of other people’s needs. Respect is another important trait of good citizenship. Student 1: The student asserts that good citizenship can be tested by examining his or her level of education. Typically, a person with good education and is capable of reading, writing and speaking the formal language(s) fluently is a good citizen. People with good education often get better jobs and often contribute immensely to the country’s economy. The person is also better informed and well-versed thus is capable of making good decisions. Student 2: According to student 2, hard work is the most important parameter for testing if

Project Management White Paper Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Project Management White Paper Report - Essay Example Application of project management tools, techniques and skills will generally increase the probability of success over a wide range of projects. The Project Management Institute (PMI) has produced a guidebook to project management which contains recognized best practices standard for project management. It is incumbent upon the urban planners to apply the practices in a way befitting urban planning and development projects. 1.2 Urban Planning Project Characteristics Urban planning projects can generally be characterized as complex, interdependent projects which are mostly dependent on public needs and urban policies. Rapid transformations in the urban environment through new developments, population increases, improvement in technology and concern for environmental conservation make urban planning projects highly reliant on high quality project managers. ... The white paper anticipates that application of these project management principles will ensure that urban planning projects are acceptable to the beneficiaries of the projects, mainly urban developers and dwellers. This paper will briefly highlight the most critical principles and procedures of project management that are applicable in urban planning while providing examples of tools and guidelines that are already being used in urban planning project management. Basically, a structured approach to the execution of urban planning projects produces results that are beneficial to both the planners and beneficiaries of the project. 3. DISCUSSION 3.1 Technology Readiness in Urban Planning Technological development is now advanced in all fields including urban planning where various kinds of new technology are available for use in various areas. It is quite useful to apply structured evaluation of technology readiness in urban planning project execution. A Technology Readiness Scale (TRL ) can be applied in the assessment and communication of technology readiness in urban planning. This is a simple scale that is graded to measure the technology ranging from its lowest level of readiness (First application after development) and its highest level where application of the technology has been proven through successful implementation and operation. It is through technology readiness measurement that project teams can identify critical technology to assist in the accomplishment of urban planning project goals. 3.2 Progressive Scope Urban Planning projects can generally be characterized by two main phases where development plans are prepared through research and development of architectural, and implementation which largely consists of demolitions and construction. The key